« MAIMONIDE PRINCE DES MEDECINS » par le Dr Hervé Aaron Mimoun
LA PRIERE MEDICALE ATTRIBUEE A MAIMONIDE
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| “Eloigne de moi l’idée que je peux tout. Donne-moi la force, la volonté et l’occasion d’élargir de plus en plus mes connaissances.” | |
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“Mon D.ieu, remplis mon âme d’amour pour l’art (médical) et pour toutes les créatures. N’admets pas que la soif du gain et la recherche de la gloire m’influencent dans l’exercice de mon art, car les ennemis de la vérité et de l’amour des hommes pourraient facilement m’abuser et m’éloigner du noble devoir de faire du bien à Tes enfants. Soutiens la force de mon cœur pour qu’il soit toujours prêt à servir le pauvre et le riche, l’ami et l’ennemi, le bon et le mauvais.
Fais que je ne vois que l’Homme dans celui qui souffre. Fais que mon esprit reste clair près du lit du malade, qu’il ne soit distrait par aucune chose étrangère, afin qu’il ait présent tout ce que l’expérience et la science lui ont enseigné ; car grandes et sublimes sont les recherches scientifiques qui ont pour but de conserver la santé et la vie de toutes les créatures. Fais que mes malades aient confiance en moi et mon art, qu’ils suivent mes conseils et mes prescriptions. Éloigne de leur lit l’armée des parents conseils et les gardes qui savent toujours tout, car c’est une vengeance dangereuse qui, par vanité, fait échouer les meilleures intentions de l’art et conduit souvent les créatures à la mort. Si les ignorants me blâment et me raillent, fais que l’amour de mon art, comme cuirasse, me rende invulnérable pour que je puisse persévérer dans le vrai, sans égard au prestige, au renom et à l’âge de mes ennemis.
Prête moi, mon D.ieu, l’indulgence et la patience auprès des malades entêtés et grossiers. Fais que je sois modéré en tout mais insatiable dans mon amour de la science. Éloigne de moi l’idée que je peux tout. Donne-moi la force, la volonté et l’occasion d’élargir de plus en plus mes connaissances. Je peux aujourd’hui découvrir dans mon savoir des choses que je ne soupçonnais pas hier, car l’art est grand mais l’esprit de l’homme pénètre tout. “
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| La médecine de cette époque, après l’influence grecque, était donc représentée par de grands médecins juifs et arabes. | |
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A côté des monuments de la Tradition Hébraïque que sont des oeuvres comme le “Michné Torah ” (Répétition de la Loi), encore appelé “Yad Hah’azaka” (“La Main Forte”), ou le Guide des Egarés, Maimonide a écrit d’autres textes moins connus et à visée essentiellement médicale.
Maïmonide s’est intéressé à la science médicale dès son jeune âge, considérant qu’il y a là une activité “religieuse” propre à renforcer la “vertu”. II décidera d’exercer véritablement le métier de médecin lorsque son frère David disparaîtra dans un naufrage lors d’un voyage d’affaires, laissant Maimonide dans un grand désespoir moral et dans un dénuement matériel total. Ne voulant tirer aucune rétribution de ses travaux sur la Torah, Maïmonide subviendra à ses besoins grâce à l’exercice de la médecine. Son prestige, ses connaissances, devaient rapidement faire de lui un médecin réputé.
Le Sultan Saladin, conquérant de l’Egypte, en fit le médecin de sa cour. On venait aussi le consulter depuis la Syrie, la Palestine, et encore de plus loin. On dit même que Richard Coeur de Lion, qui régnait en Terre Sainte proposa de l’attacher à sa cour.
La médecine de Maimonide puisait à trois sources : les notions de santé dans la Tradition Hébraïque, la médecine pratiquée à son époque, ses propres recherches et analyses liées à des expérimentations personnelles.
Nous reviendrons sur les notions de santé dans la Tradition Hébraïque. En ce qui concerne la médecine de l’époque, elle était influencée par les écrits d’Hippocrate ( 460-377), de Galien (131-201), de Rahzès (860-923), d’Avicenne (980-1037), d’Asaph Hayehoudi (environ VIIème siècle), d’Isaac Israëli (830-930) et d’autres encore. La médecine de cette époque, après l’influence grecque, était donc représentée par de grands médecins juifs et arabes.
La plupart des écrits médicaux de Maïmonide sont des commandes. Faisait il une différence quant à la certitude de ses ouvrages sur la tradition et la justesse de sa position à ce sujet (qu’il tenait absolument à transmettre aux générations futures), par rapport à une certaine relativité de la vérité médicale telle qu’il la pressentait ? Nous le pensons.
Tous ces ouvrages médicaux ont été écrits en judéo-arabe.
En voici la présentation succincte:
TRAITE DES APHORISMES
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| L’effigie de Maïmonide est sculptée dans la pierre des bâtiments de la Faculté de Médecine de Paris, et on peut l’y voir encore aujourd’hui en passant rue Jacob, au quartier latin. | |
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Ce traité est divisé en 25 grands chapitres, où l’on aborde : l’anatomie et la physiologie, les humeurs, la déontologie, la symptomatologie, les troubles de la parole, la thérapeutique générale, les maladies “spéciales”, les fièvres, les périodes d’incubation, les saignées, les purgatifs et les vomissements, la chirurgie, la gynécologie, l’hygiène, la condition physique et le sport, la balnéation, les aliments et les boissons, les drogues, les médicaments “magiques”, la physio-pathologie, les cas rares, et enfin, le doute médical (surtout par rapport à certains écrits de Galien)
Ces 25 chapitres toucheront donc à un grand nombre de spécialités médicales et traiteront des troubles cardio-vasculaires, du diabète sucré, des tumeurs, de la psychosomatique, des nerfs, du tube digestif, des troubles respiratoires, des maladies infectieuses et parasitaires, de l’anatomie, de l’embryologie, de la gynécologie-obstétrique, du sport, de l’anesthésie.
A lui seul, ce “Traité des Aphorismes” constitue une somme des connaissances médicales de l’époque, depuis les apports antiques de la Médecine Hippocratique jusqu’aux pratiques du XIIème siècle, celui de Maïmonide.
Cette oeuvre a été la source médicale la plus consultée du Moyen Age et a assuré à son auteur une réputation considérable comme grand médecin de l’humanité, reconnu par tous. L’effigie de Maïmonide est sculptée dans la pierre des bâtiments de la Faculté de Médecine de Paris, et on peut l’y voir encore aujourd’hui en passant rue Jacob, au quartier latin.
TRAITE DES POISONS
Il y est question des différents poisons, de la pharmacologie et des antidotes, des traitements généraux, des régimes diététiques, de la prophylaxie de l’empoisonnement.
TRAITE DE LA CONSERVATION DE LA SANTE
On y trouve des règles quant à la santé physique, mentale, sociale.
TRAITE DE L’ASTHME
Il y est traité des troubles psychosomatiques, de thérapeutique d’expérimentations personnelles, de l’alimentation : en quantité et en qualité, des horaires des repas, de l’environnement.
TRAITE DE LA VIE CONJUGALE
II aborde la nourriture dans la vie sexuelle, les facteurs psychologiques, le nombre des partenaires, les aliments et boissons intervenants dans la sexualité, les aliments contre-indiqués, les mets cuisinés, recettes et aphrodisiaques et l’hygiène de vie à suivre.
TRAITE DES REPONSES MEDICALES
Destiné au Vizir Al Afdal, il contient des études sur la personnalité de ce dernier et des conseils sur son emploi du temps, des aperçus sur les problèmes de déontologie, et enfin une mise en relation de la médecine et de la religion.
TRAITE DES HEMORROIDES
On y trouve des conseils sur les mets bénéfiques et ceux à éviter pour qui souffre d’hémorroïdes, des mesures de prophylaxie et de thérapeutique générale et locale.
COMMENTAIRES DES APHORISMES D’HIPPOCRATE
Tout en considérant le Traité d’Hippocrate comme l’œuvre la plus utile pour un médecin, Maïmonide estime nécessaire d’en clarifier certains points, ce qui rend l’ouvrage plus abordable.
Comme pour Hippocrate, Maïmonide analyse et commente l’œuvre de Galein. Il éclaircit certains points obscurs, en réfute d’autres, son but étant de faciliter l’acquisition des connaissances.
GLOSSAIRE DES MATIERES MEDICALES
Maïmonide fait le point sur 1800 drogues, précisant leurs diverses dénominations selon les pays et selon les langues. Son objectif est de “réduire le volume de ce précis pour faciliter la tâche de qui veut le retenir, et, par cela même d’en augmenter l’utilité“. Il termine par ces mots :
“Que D.ieu nous guide dans la voie de la vérité “
VISION D’ENSEMBLE DU COMMENTAIRE GENERAL
Voici quelques exemples de l’enseignement de Maïmonide.
ALIMENTATION
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| “L’essentiel pour l’alimentation (comme dans tous les domaines) est de parvenir à un équilibre et de s’y tenir…” | |
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A propos des lois juives sur l’alimentation (Cacherout), il dit dans le Guide Des Egarés III 35 :
” … Les lois alimentaires nous éduquent à la maîtrise de nos instincts. Elles nous habituent à contenir l’avidité et la faiblesse qu’on éprouve de rechercher ce qu’il y a de plus doux et d’adopter comme but, la passion de manger et de boire… “
Ainsi, pour Maïmonide, ces lois alimentaires de la Torah sont entre autres significations, un exercice d’auto-discipline pour aider l’homme à réprimer son instinct animal à l’égard de la nourriture. Maïmonide poursuit : “… Quant à ce qui est indispensable, comme de manger et de boire, l’homme doit se borner à ce qui est le plus utile et avoir en vue le seul besoin de se nourrir et non la jouissance, il faut se borner au nécessaire et s’abstenir du superflu“.
Dans son “Traité de Conservation De La Santé”, il reprend ces recommandations de la Tradition Hébraïque (Talmud Berah’ot 62 b) : “On ne mangera jamais que l’on ait faim et l’on ne boira jamais que l’on ait soif“.
La physiologie moderne nous confirme que la faim et la soif entrent dans le cadre d’un auto-équilibre grâce à des mécanismes complexes de régulation hormonale.
Maïmonide connaît bien le Talmud Guittin 70 a : “On ne mangera pas jusqu’à réplétion complète de l’estomac, mais on restera d’un quart environ au-dessous de la satiété complète“.
La physiologie gastrique montre qu’un estomac plein a du mal à se contracter convenablement, d’où une diminution de son travail de broyage par difficulté mécanique et passage d’aliments insuffisamment préparés dans le duodénum et l’intestin grêle, qui devront alors fournir un travail supplémentaire.
Il prend d’autres exemples du Talmud, que nous retrouvons dans les conseils que l’on reçoit de nos jours dans les services de gastro entérologie; (Chabbat 82 a) :”On ne se retiendra jamais pour satisfaire ses besoins naturels même un instant tant pour uriner que pour aller à la selle“
Maimonide y ajoute cette notion d’hygiène très actuelle: “… Lorsque l’homme travaille, se fatigue suffisamment, se nourrit modérément et lorsque ses intestins se vident facilement : ses forces se raffermissent…“
Par contre, qui mène une vie tranquille sans exercice physique, qui tarde à satisfaire ses besoins naturels,… mangerait-il des aliments sains… que, sa vie durant, il serait sujet à des affections diverses..”
Du Talmud Berah’ot 32a, Maimonide reprend encore cette assertion, qui nous apparaît véritablement comme une anticipation lorsque nous constatons les ravages occasionnés par les maladies de pléthore dans nos pays industrialisés :
“La gloutonnerie est comme un poison mortel pour le corps humain et la véritable cause de toutes les affections… dont la plupart ont pour origine les aliments nuisibles, une alimentation trop abondante, même lorsqu’il s’agit d’aliments sains“.
Pour terminer cette évocation de quelques enseignements de Maimonide sur l’alimentation, voici ce qu’il écrit dans “Le Guide des Egarés” I p. 267, 268 :
“ L’essentiel pour l’alimentation (comme dans tous les domaines) est de parvenir à un équilibre et de s’y tenir…”
EQUILIBRE, voici un maître mot pour qui veut comprendre la leçon maïmonidienne.
LES TROUBLES PSYCHOSOMATIQUES
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| ‘Aussi ne faut-il pas trop y penser, ni trop se réjouir ni trop s’attrister, car bonheur et malheur ne sont grands que dans notre imaginaire.’ | |
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Concluons en nous arrêtant un peu sur cette caractéristique essentielle de la médecine de Maimonide : la psychosomatique. Maimonide considère que la maladie résulte de la rupture d’un équilibre. Cet équilibre, à la fois physique et mental, sera maintenu et conforté chez celui qui, en toutes choses, saura s’en tenir au juste milieu. Le corps et l’esprit, bien que réalités distinctes, entretiennent chez l’être humain des relations d’interdépendances. Tout déséquilibre dans l’un se répercute sur l’autre, compromettant ainsi l’harmonie de l’être.
Voici ce que Maïmonide écrit dans ” Le Traité de l’Asthme ” : “ Il est clair pour les médecins, que l’on ne peut parvenir à la thérapeutique des maladies de manière directe ; il faut s’efforcer avant tout de bien connaître le tempérament du malade…“
II faudra donc, pour guérir le patient, tenir compte entre autres choses, de ses données psychiques. Dans ce même traité, on trouve au chapitre VII :
” Quant aux émotions, leur importance nous est connue ; c’est à dire que l’action de la souffrance morale et de l’oppression, que nous constatons, affaiblit les fonctions psychiques et physiques à tel point qu’au cours des repas, l’appétit disparaît à cause de la douleur, de l’angoisse, de la tristesse ou des soucis. Si l’homme veut alors élever la voix, cela lui sera impossible, car son émotion affaiblit ses organes respiratoires dont il ne pourra se servir convenablement… Il n’a même pas de force pour lever ou déplacer ses membres. Si cet état persiste, il tombera obligatoirement malade et si cela se prolonge, il mourra… La joie et le plaisir provoquent l’état contraire et renforcent le moral et les mouvements du sang et de l’esprit. Ainsi, l’organisme verra s’accomplir ses fonctions aussi complètement que possible.Si l’on exagère la jouissance, comme cela arrive chez les ignorants et les débiles, on peut en devenir malade et même en mourir à cause de l’anéantissement et du pourrissement de l’âme, laquelle quitte le corps, le cœur se refroidit et l’homme mourra. La thérapeutique de ces deux sortes d’émotions psychiques et leur prévention ne consiste pas uniquement en un régime alimentaire et des soins médicaux… elle dépend d’autres spécialités, telle que l’étude des vertus par les “philosophes” (nous dirions aujourd’hui psychiatres ou psychosomaticiens)… Il n’y a pas de doute que par ces méthodes le malade guérira bien mieux… Ainsi, les enseignements des “philosophes” les éloigneront des émotions. Ils ne se sentiront pas trop affectés par la tristesse ou par la joie, comme cela arrive aux gens ordinaires.
Leurs émotions seront influencées par des conseils humains, sans manifestations organiques à l’exception d’un resserrement de cœur, de la faiblesse et de ce qui en résulte. De même grâce aux enseignements éthiques, on regarde avec d’autres yeux le monde et ce qu’il contient, qu’il s’agisse de bonheur ou de malheur, car au fond ces deux états n’existent pas. Aussi ne faut-il pas trop y penser, ni trop se réjouir ni trop s’attrister, car bonheur et malheur ne sont grands que dans notre imaginaire. Une analyse réelle, montre qu’ils ne sont que plaisanteries et jeux, qui passent comme la nuit”
Ce texte sublime montre bien à quel point Maimonide était en avance sur les notions de prévention en matière de psychiatrie, de psychologie et de psychosomatique. C’est à travers la Tradition Hébraïque que Maïmonide développe sa conception de l’homme, mélange inextricable d’un corps et d’un esprit totalement interdépendants.
Toute l’œuvre de Maïmonide, qu’elle soit théologique, philosophique, juridique ou médicale, est profonde, claire, concise. Il a été un grand codificateur et un pilier universel de la connaissance humaine. Ses capacités de synthèse et d’organisation, la puissance de son intelligence et son audace intellectuelle dans tous les domaines ont fait de Maimonide un savant reconnu par toute l’humanité. Pour le monde médical, il est “Le Prince des Médecins”. Pour les Juifs, il est “l’Aigle de la synagogue”. Sur sa tombe présumée à Tibériade (Israël) est inscrite en Hébreu la phrase souvent citée à son propos : “Mi Moshé ad Moshé, Lo Kam ké Moshé” (“De Moïse à Moïse, il ne s’est levé personne comme Moïse). Le Premier Moïse est celui de l’Exode, l’autre est Moïse fils de Maïmon, Rabbi Moshé Ben Maïmon, dit le “RAMBAM”.
The Nahmans of Gerona
The Nahmans
The Nahmans came from Gerona in the (Catholic) kingdom of Catalonia, north of its capitol of Barcelona. Gerona was occupied by the Moors for only 40 years. The Nahman name can be traced back to Babylonia (Iraq- Iran area) where a long list of rabbis by that name are found in Jewish history dating back (as far as we have noted) to Jacob Ben Nahman (320 bce) and Isaac Ben Nahman (356 bce). Rabbi Nahman was born in Gerona (Rabbi Moses Ben Nahman (RAMBAN), Nahmanides, Catalan name – Bonastrug Da Porta (1194-1270 ce). He and his wife had three boys (Joseph, Solomon and Isaac) and daughters (names not noted). One of the daughters married the next chief rabbi of Gerona, Rabbi Gerson ben Salomon. Rabbi Nahman’s cousin Jonah ben Abraham Gerondi (1180-1263) was a noted Talmudist (Jewish law) and writer on ethical matters. Rabbi Nahman’s brother Benveniste da Porta was the Bayle of Barcelona. Their maternal grandfather was the famous Rabbi Isaac ben Reuben of Barcelona.
To understand further the period, we must mention that before, during and after Rabbi Nahman’s time there were two main trends in Judaism. The great Rabbi Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides, Rambam) (1135-1204) is considered by all as a giant who modernized Jewish thought. He reconciled theology with the “new” knowledge of the sciences. His was a demystifying force. He opposed the literal interpretation of scripture which was straight-jacketing knowledge, inquiry and understanding. His writings were in the most simple language so that the masses could understand, without the need of “interpretation” by the hierarchy who were the final arbiters of religious disputes. Maimon was greatly influenced by Aristotle’s philosophy. Simply put his writings espoused a more “rational and philosophical” approach as against the more orthodox “faith and tradition” mentality that “all that is worth knowing can be found in the scriptures.” Rabbi Nahman (while praising and honoring R. Maimon) was essentially a faith and tradition adherent. Rabbi Nahman opposed the Rabbinical zealots who urged the Catholic Church to burn the “heretical” Maimonides’ work. Rabbi Nahman wrote a treatise against the book burning and against the postmortem “herem” (excommunication) of Maimonides proposed by the Rabbinical zealots. The books were burned. The Church then proceeded to burn all Talmuds (Holy Books) a few years later.
Rabbi Nahman was a founder in Gerona of a school for the study of Cabala, searching for mystical messages and meaning in the scripture. Rabbi Nahman was a well respected leader of his community and of Jews everywhere. He became the Chief Rabbi of the whole province of Catalonia. Rabbi Nahman was appointed Bayle (leader of Gerona’s Jewish Community) by King Jaime I the King of Catalonia, Aragon and Sicily. The Jewish communities were under the direct supervision of the monarchy. The community administered its own laws and was exempt from local or clerical (Christian) interference. It was answerable thru its Bayle directly to the King on all matters. Under the Reign of Jaime I, the Jews of Catalonia prospered and their communities grew. Rabbi Nahman was a physician(this earned him his living(3) and he was the King’s personal physician. He was a poet and a prolific writer. Fifty books or works of Rabbi Nahman are still studied at all Hebrew universities. His son Joseph became a landowner and an advisor to the King of Castile in Valladolid. It is from this son that we believe our present family descends in as much as the name Joseph (and not Isaac or Solomon) is the name passed on from generation to generation to the present day.
In 1263 the church asked that Rabbi Nahman debate the Dominican Monk Pablo Christiani, a converted Jew. The topic was “The Messiah’s Coming prophesied by the Bible has been fulfilled by the birth of Jesus.” Rabbi Nahman refused but when Jaime I gave his personal guarantee that Rabbi Nahman would have freedom to debate, without consequence, Rabbi Nahman agreed. When the debate ended, (which took place in Gerona and then Barcelona), the King awarded him 300 Solidos (money). The Bishop of Gerona asked Rabbi Nahman to write an account of his points of view on the debate which unfortunately Rabbi Nahman did.
In 1265, prodded to do so by the Bishop of Gerona, Pope Clement IV sent an order that Rabbi Nahman be tried for heresy. King Jaime I tried to get the church to agree to a two year exile but the bishop insisted that Rabbi Nahman be brought before the court of the Inquisition. Warned by King Jaime I that he could not protect him, Rabbi Nahman left quickly for Palestine where he continued to write and teach.
Arriving in Palestine he found that there was no Jewish Community except for 2 cloth dyers who would assemble a “minyan” to hold Sabbath prayers in their house. Rabbi Nahman immediately initiated the building of a Synagogue. Funds and Torah Scrolls were sent for from the community of Catalonia. This Synagogue was destroyed in 1560 by the Turkish invasion of Jerusalem.
He also formed a Yeshiva (school for religious studies) in Acre. He stayed in Palestine waiting for a change that would permit his return to Spain. He was never able to return to Spain or see his family. He died in Palestine in 1270.
From Jerusalem Rabbi Nahman wrote in Catalan (his native language) this letter to his family: “I left my family. I had to abandon my home. There [in Gerona] with my dear sons and daughters, my beautiful grandchildren who were educated at my knees, I left also my life. My heart and my eyes will be with them forever.” His seal was found near Acre a few years ago. He is reputed to be buried at the foot of Mt. Carmel. We know of no Rabbis among the Nahmans after Moses Ben Nahman.
On The Question Of “Debates”
It was a time honored mechanism for scholars, Jewish and otherwise, to engage in debates on matters of religion, philosophy and opponents were free to speak and of course each would try to prove the correctness of their beliefs and win adherents to their point of view. These debates were of a voluntary nature, and all the participants were expected to act with decorum and all the courtesies were extended to the participants.
The onset of the reconquest of Spain from the Moors found the Catholic church giving that endeavor a “crusading” aspect. While the reconquest had its national goal of reunification of Spain into one state, the church was determined not only to eject the ” infidel” Moors but to impose their religion, as the only one for all of Spain.
Proselytizing, (trying to convert) became in their hands not a debate or contest for men’s minds but a weapon by which to force their conversion. The church made it mandatory for Jews to attend sermons where the clergy would preach. They often used Jewish converts to deliver the sermons. It also became the practice to invade Synagogs to use for these forced sermons. When these sermons did not produce the desired result, they forced the representatives of the Jewish religion (Rabbis) to enter into “debates” with clerics of the Inquisition. What kind of a “debate” could there be, if in defending their religious faith, they then could be charged with “heresy”. It was a no-win situation, yet, they were not allowed to refuse to debate.
At the Nahman-Christiani debate in 1263 at least the presence of King Jaime I (tho a Catholic monarch), did not allow a prejudgment and Rabbi Nahman was permitted to speak freely. Further, while the King was unable to convince the clergy and they appealed to the Pope for a trial, the King tried to mitigate the punishment by proposing a 2 year exile.
This was not the case in Tortosa, the reconquest was in full swing, and in 1412/1413 for an arduous 20 months (60 sessions) a “debate” was ordered in which the renegade Geronimo “de Santa Fe” (“of the Holy Faith”, formerly Joshua Larki, converted Jew) was the cleric representing the church. Four Rabbis defended the Jewish religion. Pope Benedict XII himself decided to assist Geronimo in his attack. At the very first session, the Pope announced that ” this debate is not to be one among equals, but is being held to prove the truth of Christianity”. Further, the renegade Geronimo proclaimed that the “Rabbis were heretics even to Judaism for which they would be prosecuted by the Inquisition.” Under these conditions what the Rabbis said, or were allowed to say was to no avail. The campaign of forced conversions and baptisms was accelerated and the Pope ordered the removal from the Talmud of all the scripture to which Geronimo objected.
The time for “debating” was over. Now came the torture rack, “to encourage confession.” Now came the sword, “to liberate the soul.” Now too came burning alive at the stake, “to purify the soul.” Expulsion was in the wind, and it was not long in coming. All that was awaited was the completion of task #1, the victory of the reconquest.
Some Facts About The Sephardim In Brief
In Spain it is estimated that there were 800,000 Jews including “conversos” (converts to Christianity) before the expulsion. They represented one sixth to one seventh of the population of Spain as a whole. As cruel as the expulsion was for the Jews, it was a disaster for Spain which flourished under the input of the combination of the culture, science, and enlightenment brought to Spain by the Moors. The Jews were the catalyst. With their knowledge of Arabic, Latin, Greek and the Spanish dialects, the Jews served as a means for transmission of those cultures to Spain as a whole, expanding and enriching their nation’s knowledge.
Jews were farmers, vineyarders, silver and gold smiths, mathematicians, astronomers, printers, cartographers (map makers), physicians, financiers, traders (with contacts throughout the Mediterranean “Mare Sephardicum”) and in all the professions. The languages of the Jews were the Iberian tongues, Spanish, Catalan, etc. and they employed Hebrew and Arabic along with Greek and Latin in their writings. For Spain, the tenth century to the early fourteenth century were indeed the golden age. The arts, finances, trade, sciences, architecture, medicine, botany, pharmacology, astronomy, cartography, poetry, etc. flourished. Greco-Arab science and literature was absorbed as was Babylonian, Latin and others. These enriched the knowledge of the day and laid the groundwork for a view of the world other than the strict limitations of “all that is worth knowing is contained in the scriptures.” Europe was still in the “dark ages” which dominated Europe in that era.
The reconquest of Spain from the Moors was mounted from the northern provinces under the Christian kings around 1131 and they reconquered all Spain by 1490. The official inquisition with its court was created in 1215 and its purpose was manyfold i.e., “Defense of the Faith”, conversion both thru proselytizing as well as forced conversion (or death), taxation (including non-Christians) to support the church, confiscation of properties and wealth, etc. The ferocity of the Inquisition rose in direct proportion to the success of the reconquest and its speed accelerated as the cities fell to it. The citizenry of Christian Spain was heavily taxed to finance the reconquest and this taxation heavily fell on the Jewish communities.
Large scale looting, killing, burning at the stake, confiscation, etc., at first were spontaneous (?) but became more and more organized under the sanction, urging and then mandate of the clergy in an organized and ever mounting drive leading to expulsion. The year 1391 (among many others) stands out as infamous with whole cities being made “Judenrien” (to use the Nazi term) – “Free of Jews.” Gerona was one of these cities (1391). Valladolid (1412), Toledo (1467), Seville (1481) were sites of major inquisitional abuses culminating in the expulsion of all Jews who would not convert from all of the Province of Andalusia in 1480. In the 8 years (1481-1489) in Seville alone, 700 were burned alive, 5000 tortured and punished. One could go on and on but suffice to say that Spain lost the flower of its citizenry as a result of that policy. Disastrous as it was to its victims, Jews, Moors and Converts, the Inquisition was a disaster for Spain as a nation and greatly contributed to its early decline. The Nahmans
The Nahmans came from Gerona in the (Catholic) kingdom of Catalonia, north of its capitol of Barcelona. Gerona was occupied by the Moors for only 40 years. The Nahman name can be traced back to Babylonia (Iraq- Iran area) where a long list of rabbis by that name are found in Jewish history dating back (as far as we have noted) to Jacob Ben Nahman (320 bce) and Isaac Ben Nahman (356 bce). Rabbi Nahman was born in Gerona (Rabbi Moses Ben Nahman (RAMBAN), Nahmanides, Catalan name – Bonastrug Da Porta (1194-1270 ce). He and his wife had three boys (Joseph, Solomon and Isaac) and daughters (names not noted). One of the daughters married the next chief rabbi of Gerona, Rabbi Gerson ben Salomon. Rabbi Nahman’s cousin Jonah ben Abraham Gerondi (1180-1263) was a noted Talmudist (Jewish law) and writer on ethical matters. Rabbi Nahman’s brother Benveniste da Porta was the Bayle of Barcelona. Their maternal grandfather was the famous Rabbi Isaac ben Reuben of Barcelona.
To understand further the period, we must mention that before, during and after Rabbi Nahman’s time there were two main trends in Judaism. The great Rabbi Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides, Rambam) (1135-1204) is considered by all as a giant who modernized Jewish thought. He reconciled theology with the “new” knowledge of the sciences. His was a demystifying force. He opposed the literal interpretation of scripture which was straight-jacketing knowledge, inquiry and understanding. His writings were in the most simple language so that the masses could understand, without the need of “interpretation” by the hierarchy who were the final arbiters of religious disputes. Maimon was greatly influenced by Aristotle’s philosophy. Simply put his writings espoused a more “rational and philosophical” approach as against the more orthodox “faith and tradition” mentality that “all that is worth knowing can be found in the scriptures.” Rabbi Nahman (while praising and honoring R. Maimon) was essentially a faith and tradition adherent. Rabbi Nahman opposed the Rabbinical zealots who urged the Catholic Church to burn the “heretical” Maimonides’ work. Rabbi Nahman wrote a treatise against the book burning and against the postmortem “herem” (excommunication) of Maimonides proposed by the Rabbinical zealots. The books were burned. The Church then proceeded to burn all Talmuds (Holy Books) a few years later.
Rabbi Nahman was a founder in Gerona of a school for the study of Cabala, searching for mystical messages and meaning in the scripture. Rabbi Nahman was a well respected leader of his community and of Jews everywhere. He became the Chief Rabbi of the whole province of Catalonia. Rabbi Nahman was appointed Bayle (leader of Gerona’s Jewish Community) by King Jaime I the King of Catalonia, Aragon and Sicily. The Jewish communities were under the direct supervision of the monarchy. The community administered its own laws and was exempt from local or clerical (Christian) interference. It was answerable thru its Bayle directly to the King on all matters. Under the Reign of Jaime I, the Jews of Catalonia prospered and their communities grew. Rabbi Nahman was a physician(this earned him his living(3) and he was the King’s personal physician. He was a poet and a prolific writer. Fifty books or works of Rabbi Nahman are still studied at all Hebrew universities. His son Joseph became a landowner and an advisor to the King of Castile in Valladolid. It is from this son that we believe our present family descends in as much as the name Joseph (and not Isaac or Solomon) is the name passed on from generation to generation to the present day.
In 1263 the church asked that Rabbi Nahman debate the Dominican Monk Pablo Christiani, a converted Jew. The topic was “The Messiah’s Coming prophesied by the Bible has been fulfilled by the birth of Jesus.” Rabbi Nahman refused but when Jaime I gave his personal guarantee that Rabbi Nahman would have freedom to debate, without consequence, Rabbi Nahman agreed. When the debate ended, (which took place in Gerona and then Barcelona), the King awarded him 300 Solidos (money). The Bishop of Gerona asked Rabbi Nahman to write an account of his points of view on the debate which unfortunately Rabbi Nahman did.
In 1265, prodded to do so by the Bishop of Gerona, Pope Clement IV sent an order that Rabbi Nahman be tried for heresy. King Jaime I tried to get the church to agree to a two year exile but the bishop insisted that Rabbi Nahman be brought before the court of the Inquisition. Warned by King Jaime I that he could not protect him, Rabbi Nahman left quickly for Palestine where he continued to write and teach.
Arriving in Palestine he found that there was no Jewish Community except for 2 cloth dyers who would assemble a “minyan” to hold Sabbath prayers in their house. Rabbi Nahman immediately initiated the building of a Synagogue. Funds and Torah Scrolls were sent for from the community of Catalonia. This Synagogue was destroyed in 1560 by the Turkish invasion of Jerusalem.
He also formed a Yeshiva (school for religious studies) in Acre. He stayed in Palestine waiting for a change that would permit his return to Spain. He was never able to return to Spain or see his family. He died in Palestine in 1270.
From Jerusalem Rabbi Nahman wrote in Catalan (his native language) this letter to his family: “I left my family. I had to abandon my home. There [in Gerona] with my dear sons and daughters, my beautiful grandchildren who were educated at my knees, I left also my life. My heart and my eyes will be with them forever.” His seal was found near Acre a few years ago. He is reputed to be buried at the foot of Mt. Carmel. We know of no Rabbis among the Nahmans after Moses Ben Nahman.
On The Question Of “Debates”
It was a time honored mechanism for scholars, Jewish and otherwise, to engage in debates on matters of religion, philosophy and opponents were free to speak and of course each would try to prove the correctness of their beliefs and win adherents to their point of view. These debates were of a voluntary nature, and all the participants were expected to act with decorum and all the courtesies were extended to the participants.
The onset of the reconquest of Spain from the Moors found the Catholic church giving that endeavor a “crusading” aspect. While the reconquest had its national goal of reunification of Spain into one state, the church was determined not only to eject the ” infidel” Moors but to impose their religion, as the only one for all of Spain.
Proselytizing, (trying to convert) became in their hands not a debate or contest for men’s minds but a weapon by which to force their conversion. The church made it mandatory for Jews to attend sermons where the clergy would preach. They often used Jewish converts to deliver the sermons. It also became the practice to invade Synagogs to use for these forced sermons. When these sermons did not produce the desired result, they forced the representatives of the Jewish religion (Rabbis) to enter into “debates” with clerics of the Inquisition. What kind of a “debate” could there be, if in defending their religious faith, they then could be charged with “heresy”. It was a no-win situation, yet, they were not allowed to refuse to debate.
At the Nahman-Christiani debate in 1263 at least the presence of King Jaime I (tho a Catholic monarch), did not allow a prejudgment and Rabbi Nahman was permitted to speak freely. Further, while the King was unable to convince the clergy and they appealed to the Pope for a trial, the King tried to mitigate the punishment by proposing a 2 year exile.
This was not the case in Tortosa, the reconquest was in full swing, and in 1412/1413 for an arduous 20 months (60 sessions) a “debate” was ordered in which the renegade Geronimo “de Santa Fe” (“of the Holy Faith”, formerly Joshua Larki, converted Jew) was the cleric representing the church. Four Rabbis defended the Jewish religion. Pope Benedict XII himself decided to assist Geronimo in his attack. At the very first session, the Pope announced that ” this debate is not to be one among equals, but is being held to prove the truth of Christianity”. Further, the renegade Geronimo proclaimed that the “Rabbis were heretics even to Judaism for which they would be prosecuted by the Inquisition.” Under these conditions what the Rabbis said, or were allowed to say was to no avail. The campaign of forced conversions and baptisms was accelerated and the Pope ordered the removal from the Talmud of all the scripture to which Geronimo objected.
The time for “debating” was over. Now came the torture rack, “to encourage confession.” Now came the sword, “to liberate the soul.” Now too came burning alive at the stake, “to purify the soul.” Expulsion was in the wind, and it was not long in coming. All that was awaited was the completion of task #1, the victory of the reconquest.
Some Facts About The Sephardim In Brief
In Spain it is estimated that there were 800,000 Jews including “conversos” (converts to Christianity) before the expulsion. They represented one sixth to one seventh of the population of Spain as a whole. As cruel as the expulsion was for the Jews, it was a disaster for Spain which flourished under the input of the combination of the culture, science, and enlightenment brought to Spain by the Moors. The Jews were the catalyst. With their knowledge of Arabic, Latin, Greek and the Spanish dialects, the Jews served as a means for transmission of those cultures to Spain as a whole, expanding and enriching their nation’s knowledge.
Jews were farmers, vineyarders, silver and gold smiths, mathematicians, astronomers, printers, cartographers (map makers), physicians, financiers, traders (with contacts throughout the Mediterranean “Mare Sephardicum”) and in all the professions. The languages of the Jews were the Iberian tongues, Spanish, Catalan, etc. and they employed Hebrew and Arabic along with Greek and Latin in their writings. For Spain, the tenth century to the early fourteenth century were indeed the golden age. The arts, finances, trade, sciences, architecture, medicine, botany, pharmacology, astronomy, cartography, poetry, etc. flourished. Greco-Arab science and literature was absorbed as was Babylonian, Latin and others. These enriched the knowledge of the day and laid the groundwork for a view of the world other than the strict limitations of “all that is worth knowing is contained in the scriptures.” Europe was still in the “dark ages” which dominated Europe in that era.
The reconquest of Spain from the Moors was mounted from the northern provinces under the Christian kings around 1131 and they reconquered all Spain by 1490. The official inquisition with its court was created in 1215 and its purpose was manyfold i.e., “Defense of the Faith”, conversion both thru proselytizing as well as forced conversion (or death), taxation (including non-Christians) to support the church, confiscation of properties and wealth, etc. The ferocity of the Inquisition rose in direct proportion to the success of the reconquest and its speed accelerated as the cities fell to it. The citizenry of Christian Spain was heavily taxed to finance the reconquest and this taxation heavily fell on the Jewish communities.
Large scale looting, killing, burning at the stake, confiscation, etc., at first were spontaneous (?) but became more and more organized under the sanction, urging and then mandate of the clergy in an organized and ever mounting drive leading to expulsion. The year 1391 (among many others) stands out as infamous with whole cities being made “Judenrien” (to use the Nazi term) – “Free of Jews.” Gerona was one of these cities (1391). Valladolid (1412), Toledo (1467), Seville (1481) were sites of major inquisitional abuses culminating in the expulsion of all Jews who would not convert from all of the Province of Andalusia in 1480. In the 8 years (1481-1489) in Seville alone, 700 were burned alive, 5000 tortured and punished. One could go on and on but suffice to say that Spain lost the flower of its citizenry as a result of that policy. Disastrous as it was to its victims, Jews, Moors and Converts, the Inquisition was a disaster for Spain as a nation and greatly contributed to its early decline.
Benjamin H Nahman, Los Angeles 1990
Musée d’art et d’histoire du Judaisme, rendez-vous de septembre 2007
Les rendez-vous de septembre 2007
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Sommaire
> Événement : Journée européenne de la culture juive
> Événement : Journée européenne du patrimoine
> Conte : Histoires du fin fond de nos familles
> Conférence : L’hôtel d’Avaux (aujourd’hui Musée d’art et d’histoire du Judaïsme)
et son décor à fresque attribué à Rémy Vuibert
> Rencontre : Cyrille Fleischman
> Rencontre : Pierre Mendès France
> Lecture : Sholem Aleikhem : Menahem-Mendl, le rêveur
> Ateliers en famille, ateliers adultes
> Visites guidées, promenades contées, promenades dans la ville
ÉvÉnements
Entrées libres !
À la rentrée, deux journées pour découvrir ou redécouvrir gratuitement le musée et ses collections et pour profiter d’un programme d’animations variées.
Dimanche 2 septembre 2007 de 10 h à 18 h
Journée européenne de la culture juive
Promenade dans la ville
Promenade contée
Atelier en famille
Animation musicale…
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Dimanche 16 septembre 2007 de 10 h à 18 h
Journée européenne du patrimoine
Promenade dans la ville
Visites guidées
Conférence
Animation musicale…
Conte
Dimanche 9 septembre 2007 à 16 h
Histoires du fin fond de nos familles
Récits racontés à deux voix et en musique
Par Sonia Koskas, conteuse
et Maurice Delaistier, conteur, musicien
« Ce spectacle prend sa source dans les histoires de nos familles respectives : celle de Sonia, juive sépharade tunisienne arrivée en France dans les années 60, et ma propre famille, juive ashkénaze, venue de Russie au début du siècle dernier. » Maurice Delaistier
Conférence
Dimanche 16 septembre 2007 à 16 h
L’hôtel d’Avaux (aujourd’hui Musée d’art et d’histoire du Judaïsme)et son décor à fresque attribué à Rémy Vuibert
Par Claude Mignot, professeur d’histoire de l’art à l’université de Paris-Sorbonne (Paris IV)
Dans le cadre de la Journée européenne du patrimoine
Rencontres
Mardi 18 septembre 2007 à 19 h
Cyrille Fleischman
Conversation avec Josyane Savigneau, journaliste au Monde
Les amateurs de nostalgie, d’ironie tendre, les amoureux d’un Paris disparu apprécieront l’humour de Cyrille Fleischman « dernier praticien infaillible des lumières de la vie en yiddish ».
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Dimanche 30 septembre 2007 à partir de 15 h
Pierre Mendès France
Rencontre coordonnée par Éric Roussel, écrivain, journaliste, président de l’Institut Pierre Mendès France, auteur de Pierre Mendès France, aux éditions Gallimard (2007).
Avec la participation de Gérard Boulanger, avocat, écrivain, auteur du « Juif » Mendès France, aux éditions Calmann-Lévy (2007) ; Alain Finkielkraut, philosophe ; Simone Gros, ancienne assistante de Pierre Mendès France ; David Kessler, directeur de France Culture ; Me Georges Kiejman, avocat, ancien ministre ; Jean Lacouture, écrivain ; Joan Mendès France, écrivain et historienne ; Léone Nora, ancienne chef adjoint du cabinet de Pierre Mendès France ; Gérard Unger, P-DG de Métrobus, historien.
Cet après-midi, organisé dans le cadre du centenaire de la naissance de Pierre Mendès France, rendra hommage à cette personnalité exceptionnelle.
Lecture
Dimanche 23 septembre 2007 à 16 h
Menahem-Mendl, le rêveur
De Sholem Aleikhem
Lu par Romane Bohringer et Hédi Tillette de Clermont-Tonnerre
Traduit du yiddish par Léa et Marc Rittel
Sous la direction de Gabor Rassov
Sholem Aleikhem, grand auteur de littérature yiddish, nous conte, avec humour et tendresse, les hilarantes mésaventures de Menahem-Mendl, parti du shtetl pour chercher fortune dans les grandes villes de la Russie tsariste.
Ateliers en famille, ateliers adultes
Ateliers en famille
Dimanche 2 septembre 2007 à 14 h
De lait et de miel : berceuses juives
Dans le cadre de la journée européenne de la culture juive
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Ateliers adultes
Ateliers d’écriture
Cette année, deux horaires vous sont offerts :
le mardi de 11 h à 13 h 30, créneau destiné aux participants de l’atelier de l’année passée ;
le jeudi de 11 h à 13 h 30, créneau destiné aux débutants.
Mardi 4 septembre 2007 à 11 h
Jeudi 6 septembre 2007 à 11 h
Mardi 18 septembre 2007 à 11 h
Jeudi 20 septembre 2007 à 11 h
Ateliers d’écriture
En savoir plus
Jeudi 6 septembre 2007 à 15 h
Rencontre généalogique
Visites guidÉes, promenades contÉes, promenades dans la ville
Dimanche 2 septembre 2007 à 11 h JECJ
Dimanche 16 septembre 2007 à 10 h 30 et 14 h JEP
Visite guidée : Le Marais juif
Par Élisabeth Kurztag
Dimanche 2 septembre 2007 à 11 h 30 et 14 h 30 JECJ
Promenade contée : Gens ordinaires et destinées hors du commun
Dimanche 16 septembre 2007 à 11 h et 15 h JEP
Visite guidée : Temple et synagogues
Par Raphaëlle Laufer-Krygier
Dimanche 16 septembre 2007 à 14 h 30 JEP
Visite guidée en famille : Les mystères de l’hôtel de Saint-Aignan
JECJ dans le cadre de la Journée européenne de la culture juive
JEP dans le cadre de la Journée européenne du patrimoine
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Musée d’art et d’histoire du Judaïsme
Hôtel de Saint-Aignan – 71 rue du Temple
75003 Paris
Tél : 01 53 01 86 60
Site internet : http://www.mahj.org
Métro : Rambuteau ou Hôtel de Ville
European Day of Jewish Culture 2007
Jewish Heritage
European Association for the Preservation and Promotion of Jewish Culture and Heritage (AEPJ)
Theme : Testimonies
Next European Day of Jewish Culture
Sunday, September 2nd, 2007
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European Day of Jewish Culture 2007
Theme : Testimonies
Sunday, September 2nd, 2007
A day that takes place almost all over Europe – this year in 30 countries – to discover the cultural and historical heritage of Judaism! Thanks to open doors, circuits, exhibitions, lectures and concerts, the wider public is invited to get to know Klezmer music, contemporary art, theatre and to visit synagogues, old cemeteries, ritual baths and ancient Jewish quarters. This year, the chosen theme, «Testimonies», enables to highlight the imprints which have been left by the Jews everywhere they have lived.
In particular, solidarity in the participation countries, i.e. Austria, Belgium, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Holland, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine and United Kingdom, allows to unite over 10.000 volunteers and institutional persons working to organise the events. Jewish associations, history groups, tourist boards, municipalities, museums, artists, students, all work toward the preparation of the Day, while the official programme is being spread through the Internet site (www.jewisheritage.org), which was created for this purpose.
Launched in 1996 in the Bas-Rhin (Alsace/France), under the Open Day formula by the Jewish association B’nai B’rith Hirschler in Strasbourg, in partnership with the Agence de Développement Touristique du Bas-Rhin (Tourist board of Lower Alsace), the day was progressively extended and became the European Day of Jewish Culture in 2000. From 2000 to 2003, this event was co-organised on the European level by four structures: the Agence de Développement Touristique du Bas-Rhin, B’nai B’rith Europe, the European Council of Jewish Communities and Red de Juderías de España (Spanish Jewish Network). Since 2004, the event is being co-organised by B’nai B’rith Europe, the European Council of Jewish Communities and Red de Juderías de España.
For more information: www.jewisheritage.org; details of the events online from June 2007 onwards.
Available Posters
-
General Poster (all countries):
Poster from the European Day of Jewish Culture 2007 (English)
The European Day 2007
EDJC Program 2007
Austria, Belgium, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech-Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom
Calendar
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| 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 |
| 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 |
| 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 | |
Themes
2007: Testimonies
2006: The European Routes of Jewish Heritage
2005: Jewish Cooking in Heritage
2004: Judaism and Education
B’nai B’rith Europe / European Council of Jewish Communities / Red de Juderías de España – Caminos de Sefarad
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